Ruth Colvin Clark, Richard E. Mayer
e-Learning and the Science of Instruction
Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning
Ruth Colvin Clark, Richard E. Mayer
e-Learning and the Science of Instruction
Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning
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Thoroughly revised and updated, this third edition of the best-selling book offers a comprehensive review of multimedia learning for both users and designers. The book contains design principles that are written to increase learning while debunking many popular theories about good design. The book also contains the most current research and includes new topics (e-learning for educators, new delivery technologies, social media, and more) and offers helpful guidelines. The book's many examples: create working multimedia that inform the research guidelines; have been update to include real-world…mehr
Thoroughly revised and updated, this third edition of the best-selling book offers a comprehensive review of multimedia learning for both users and designers. The book contains design principles that are written to increase learning while debunking many popular theories about good design. The book also contains the most current research and includes new topics (e-learning for educators, new delivery technologies, social media, and more) and offers helpful guidelines. The book's many examples: create working multimedia that inform the research guidelines; have been update to include real-world screen captures; extend principles to illustrate their application to synchronous e-learning tools.
Since the first edition of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction was published in 2002, e-learning has become more popular than ever. Organizations continue to turn to e-solutions to save both travel costs and instructional time.
Ruth Colvin Clark and Richard E. Mayer have thoroughly revised and updated the third edition of their best-selling book to meet the needs of today's designers, developers, and consumers. e-Learning and the Science of Instruction offers a comprehensive review of multimedia learning for both users and designers. The book's research-based information on design and development goes a long way in preparing effective e-learning solutions.
e-Learning and the Science of Instruction contains design principles that are written to increase learning while debunking many popular theories about good design. The book also includes a wealth of new topics such as e-learning for educators, new delivery technologies, and evidence-based training. Designers, developers, and consumers of e-learning can use the guidelines outlined in this practical resource to ensure that courseware meets human psychological learning requirements. The book includes best practices for communicating content with visuals, audio, and text; avoiding extraneous media effects; design examples and exercises that help learners build their skills and sharpen their problem-solving facilities; evaluation of simulations and games that are relevant to instructional goals; and much more.
The third edition also offers new storyboards from an asynchronous lesson on Excel, a synchronous lesson on Excel, and an asynchronous lesson on pharmaceutical sales.
Since the first edition of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction was published in 2002, e-learning has become more popular than ever. Organizations continue to turn to e-solutions to save both travel costs and instructional time.
Ruth Colvin Clark and Richard E. Mayer have thoroughly revised and updated the third edition of their best-selling book to meet the needs of today's designers, developers, and consumers. e-Learning and the Science of Instruction offers a comprehensive review of multimedia learning for both users and designers. The book's research-based information on design and development goes a long way in preparing effective e-learning solutions.
e-Learning and the Science of Instruction contains design principles that are written to increase learning while debunking many popular theories about good design. The book also includes a wealth of new topics such as e-learning for educators, new delivery technologies, and evidence-based training. Designers, developers, and consumers of e-learning can use the guidelines outlined in this practical resource to ensure that courseware meets human psychological learning requirements. The book includes best practices for communicating content with visuals, audio, and text; avoiding extraneous media effects; design examples and exercises that help learners build their skills and sharpen their problem-solving facilities; evaluation of simulations and games that are relevant to instructional goals; and much more.
The third edition also offers new storyboards from an asynchronous lesson on Excel, a synchronous lesson on Excel, and an asynchronous lesson on pharmaceutical sales.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 3. Aufl. 2011.
- Gewicht: 1012g
- ISBN-13: 9780470874301
- ISBN-10: 0470874309
- Artikelnr.: 33216352
- Herstellerkennzeichnung Die Herstellerinformationen sind derzeit nicht verfügbar.
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 3. Aufl. 2011.
- Gewicht: 1012g
- ISBN-13: 9780470874301
- ISBN-10: 0470874309
- Artikelnr.: 33216352
- Herstellerkennzeichnung Die Herstellerinformationen sind derzeit nicht verfügbar.
Ruth Colvin Clark has worked for more than thirty years with instructional professionals assigned to design, develop, and select effective training for classroom or computer delivery. She is widely published in the areas of training, development, and performance improvement.
Richard E. Mayer is professor of psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is an internationally-recognized expert in the application of learning psychology to design of instruction in multimedia learning environments, as well as the author of Multimedia Learning and the editor of the Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning.
Richard E. Mayer is professor of psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is an internationally-recognized expert in the application of learning psychology to design of instruction in multimedia learning environments, as well as the author of Multimedia Learning and the editor of the Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning.
Acknowledgments xvii
Introduction 1
1. e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls 7
What Is e-Learning? 8
Is e-Learning Better? 11
The Promise of e-Learning 14
The Pitfalls of e-Learning 19
Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals 20
e-Learning Architectures 22
What Is Effective e-Courseware? 23
Learning in e-Learning 25
2. How Do People Learn from e-Courses? 29
How Do People Learn? 31
How e-Lessons Affect Human Learning 39
What We Don't Know About Learning 44
3. Evidence-Based Practice 49
What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 50
Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness 51
What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons 55
How to Interpret No Effect in Experimental Comparisons 57
How to Interpret Research Statistics 58
How Can You Identify Relevant Research? 61
What We Don't Know About Evidence-Based Practice 62
4. Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather Than Words Alone 67
Do Visuals Make a Difference? 69
Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 70
Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 74
Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 78
Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 79
The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices 83
Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations? 84
What We Don't Know About Visuals 86
5. Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics 91
Contiguity Principle 1: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 93
Contiguity Principle 2: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics 102
Psychological Reasons for the Contiguity Principle 104
Evidence for Presenting Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 106
Evidence for Presenting Spoken Words at the Same Time as Corresponding Graphics 109
What We Don't Know About Contiguity 110
6. Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115
Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text 117
Limitations to the Modality Principle 119
Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle 121
Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text 123
When the Modality Principle Applies 128
What We Don't Know About Modality 129
7. Applying the Redundancy Principle: Explain Visuals with Words in Audio OR Text: Not Both 133
Redundancy Principle 1: Do Not Add On-Screen Text to Narrated Graphics 135
Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle 137
Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text 139
Redundancy Principle 2: Consider Adding On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations 141
Psychological Reasons for Exceptions to the Redundancy Principle 142
Evidence for Including Redundant On-Screen Text 144
What We Don't Know About Redundancy 146
8. Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Material Can Hurt Learning 151
Coherence Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio 153
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning 156
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio 157
Coherence Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics 159
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning 160
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest 161
Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals 164
Coherence Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words 166
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas 170
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth 172
What We Don't Know About Coherence 172
9. Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style and Virtual Coaches 179
Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style 182
Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle 183
Evidence for Using Conversational Style 185
Promote Personalization Through Voice Quality 188
Promote Personalization Through Polite Speech 189
Personalization Principle 2: Use Effective On-Screen Coaches to Promote Learning 191
Personalization Principle 3: Make the Author Visible to Promote Learning 197
Psychological Reasons for Using a Visible Author 200
Evidence for the Visible Author 200
What We Don't Know About Personalization 201
10. Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles: Managing Complexity by Breaking a Lesson into Parts 205
Segmenting Principle: Break a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 207
Psychological Reasons for the Segmenting Principle 210
Evidence for Breaking a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 211
Pretraining Principle: Ensure That Learners Know the Names and Characteristics of Key Concepts 212
Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle 214
Evidence for Providing Pretraining in Key Concepts 216
What We Don't Know About Segmenting and Pretraining 218
11. Leveraging Examples in e-Learning 223
What Are Worked Examples? 224
The Psychology of Worked Examples 227
Evidence for the Benefi ts of Worked Examples 227
Worked Example Principle 1: Fade from Worked Examples to Problems 229
Worked Example Principle 2: Promote Self-Explanations 231
Worked Example Principle 3: Include Instructional Explanations of Worked Examples in Some Situations 234
Worked Example Principle 4: Apply Multimedia Principles to Examples 235
Worked Example Principle 5: Support Learning Transfer 239
Design Guidelines for Far Transfer Worked Examples 240
What We Don't Know About Worked Examples 245
12. Does Practice Make Perfect? 251
What Is Practice in e-Learning? 253
The Paradox of Practice 255
Practice Principle 1: Add Suffi cient Practice Interactions to e-Learning to Achieve the Objective 257
Practice Principle 2: Mirror the Job 262
Practice Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback 263
Practice Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events 267
Practice Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles 272
Practice Principle 6: Transition from Examples to Practice Gradually 274
What We Don't Know About Practice 274
13. Learning Together Virtually 279
What Is Collaborative Learning? 280
What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? 284
Some Generalizations About Collaboration 288
CSCL Research Summaries 292
Structured Controversy 300
CSCL: The Bottom Line 303
What We Don't Know About CSCL 303
14. Who's in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 309
Learner Control Versus Program Control 311
Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 315
Learner Control Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control 319
Learner Control Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default 322
Learner Control Principle 3: Consider Adaptive Control 323
Learner Control Principle 4: Give Pacing Control 327
Learner Control Principle 5: Offer Navigational Support in Hypermedia Environments 329
What We Don't Know About Learner Control 333
15. e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills 339
Three Types of Thinking Skills 341
Can Thinking Skills Be Trained? 343
Thinking Skills Principle 1: Focus on Job-Specific Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills 344
Thinking Skills Principle 2: Consider a Whole-Task Course Design 345
Evidence for Whole-Task Instruction 351
Thinking Skills Principle 3: Make Thinking Processes Explicit 355
Thinking Skills Principle 4: Defi ne Job-Specifi c Thinking Processes 360
Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line 363
What We Don't Know About Teaching Thinking Skills 364
16. Simulations and Games in e-Learning 369
The Case for Simulations and Games 372
What Are Simulations and Games? 374
Do Games and Simulations Teach? 378
Games and Simulations Principle 1: Match Game Types to Learning Goals 381
Games and Simulations Principle 2: Make Learning Essential to Game Progress 382
Games and Simulations Principle 3: Build in Proven Instructional Strategies 382
Games and Simulations Principle 4: Build in Guidance and Structure 386
Games and Simulations Principle 5: Manage Complexity 389
Games and Simulations Principle 6: Make Relevance Salient 393
What We Don't Know About Games and Simulations 394
17. Applying the Guidelines 401
Applying Evidence-Based Guidelines to e-Courses 401
e-Lesson Reviews 404
Review of Sample 1: Asynchronous e-Lesson on Excel for Small Business 409
Review of Sample 2: Synchronous e-Lesson on Excel 414
Review of Sample 3: Automotive Troubleshooting Simulation 418
Reflections on Past Predictions 421
Beyond 2011 423
In Conclusion 424
References 425
Glossary 453
List of Tables and Figures 475
Name Index 487
Subject Index 493
About the Authors 501
Pfeiffer Publications Guide 503
Introduction 1
1. e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls 7
What Is e-Learning? 8
Is e-Learning Better? 11
The Promise of e-Learning 14
The Pitfalls of e-Learning 19
Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals 20
e-Learning Architectures 22
What Is Effective e-Courseware? 23
Learning in e-Learning 25
2. How Do People Learn from e-Courses? 29
How Do People Learn? 31
How e-Lessons Affect Human Learning 39
What We Don't Know About Learning 44
3. Evidence-Based Practice 49
What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 50
Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness 51
What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons 55
How to Interpret No Effect in Experimental Comparisons 57
How to Interpret Research Statistics 58
How Can You Identify Relevant Research? 61
What We Don't Know About Evidence-Based Practice 62
4. Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather Than Words Alone 67
Do Visuals Make a Difference? 69
Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 70
Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 74
Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 78
Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 79
The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices 83
Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations? 84
What We Don't Know About Visuals 86
5. Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics 91
Contiguity Principle 1: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 93
Contiguity Principle 2: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics 102
Psychological Reasons for the Contiguity Principle 104
Evidence for Presenting Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 106
Evidence for Presenting Spoken Words at the Same Time as Corresponding Graphics 109
What We Don't Know About Contiguity 110
6. Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115
Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text 117
Limitations to the Modality Principle 119
Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle 121
Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text 123
When the Modality Principle Applies 128
What We Don't Know About Modality 129
7. Applying the Redundancy Principle: Explain Visuals with Words in Audio OR Text: Not Both 133
Redundancy Principle 1: Do Not Add On-Screen Text to Narrated Graphics 135
Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle 137
Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text 139
Redundancy Principle 2: Consider Adding On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations 141
Psychological Reasons for Exceptions to the Redundancy Principle 142
Evidence for Including Redundant On-Screen Text 144
What We Don't Know About Redundancy 146
8. Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Material Can Hurt Learning 151
Coherence Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio 153
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning 156
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio 157
Coherence Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics 159
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning 160
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest 161
Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals 164
Coherence Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words 166
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas 170
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth 172
What We Don't Know About Coherence 172
9. Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style and Virtual Coaches 179
Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style 182
Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle 183
Evidence for Using Conversational Style 185
Promote Personalization Through Voice Quality 188
Promote Personalization Through Polite Speech 189
Personalization Principle 2: Use Effective On-Screen Coaches to Promote Learning 191
Personalization Principle 3: Make the Author Visible to Promote Learning 197
Psychological Reasons for Using a Visible Author 200
Evidence for the Visible Author 200
What We Don't Know About Personalization 201
10. Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles: Managing Complexity by Breaking a Lesson into Parts 205
Segmenting Principle: Break a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 207
Psychological Reasons for the Segmenting Principle 210
Evidence for Breaking a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 211
Pretraining Principle: Ensure That Learners Know the Names and Characteristics of Key Concepts 212
Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle 214
Evidence for Providing Pretraining in Key Concepts 216
What We Don't Know About Segmenting and Pretraining 218
11. Leveraging Examples in e-Learning 223
What Are Worked Examples? 224
The Psychology of Worked Examples 227
Evidence for the Benefi ts of Worked Examples 227
Worked Example Principle 1: Fade from Worked Examples to Problems 229
Worked Example Principle 2: Promote Self-Explanations 231
Worked Example Principle 3: Include Instructional Explanations of Worked Examples in Some Situations 234
Worked Example Principle 4: Apply Multimedia Principles to Examples 235
Worked Example Principle 5: Support Learning Transfer 239
Design Guidelines for Far Transfer Worked Examples 240
What We Don't Know About Worked Examples 245
12. Does Practice Make Perfect? 251
What Is Practice in e-Learning? 253
The Paradox of Practice 255
Practice Principle 1: Add Suffi cient Practice Interactions to e-Learning to Achieve the Objective 257
Practice Principle 2: Mirror the Job 262
Practice Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback 263
Practice Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events 267
Practice Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles 272
Practice Principle 6: Transition from Examples to Practice Gradually 274
What We Don't Know About Practice 274
13. Learning Together Virtually 279
What Is Collaborative Learning? 280
What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? 284
Some Generalizations About Collaboration 288
CSCL Research Summaries 292
Structured Controversy 300
CSCL: The Bottom Line 303
What We Don't Know About CSCL 303
14. Who's in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 309
Learner Control Versus Program Control 311
Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 315
Learner Control Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control 319
Learner Control Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default 322
Learner Control Principle 3: Consider Adaptive Control 323
Learner Control Principle 4: Give Pacing Control 327
Learner Control Principle 5: Offer Navigational Support in Hypermedia Environments 329
What We Don't Know About Learner Control 333
15. e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills 339
Three Types of Thinking Skills 341
Can Thinking Skills Be Trained? 343
Thinking Skills Principle 1: Focus on Job-Specific Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills 344
Thinking Skills Principle 2: Consider a Whole-Task Course Design 345
Evidence for Whole-Task Instruction 351
Thinking Skills Principle 3: Make Thinking Processes Explicit 355
Thinking Skills Principle 4: Defi ne Job-Specifi c Thinking Processes 360
Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line 363
What We Don't Know About Teaching Thinking Skills 364
16. Simulations and Games in e-Learning 369
The Case for Simulations and Games 372
What Are Simulations and Games? 374
Do Games and Simulations Teach? 378
Games and Simulations Principle 1: Match Game Types to Learning Goals 381
Games and Simulations Principle 2: Make Learning Essential to Game Progress 382
Games and Simulations Principle 3: Build in Proven Instructional Strategies 382
Games and Simulations Principle 4: Build in Guidance and Structure 386
Games and Simulations Principle 5: Manage Complexity 389
Games and Simulations Principle 6: Make Relevance Salient 393
What We Don't Know About Games and Simulations 394
17. Applying the Guidelines 401
Applying Evidence-Based Guidelines to e-Courses 401
e-Lesson Reviews 404
Review of Sample 1: Asynchronous e-Lesson on Excel for Small Business 409
Review of Sample 2: Synchronous e-Lesson on Excel 414
Review of Sample 3: Automotive Troubleshooting Simulation 418
Reflections on Past Predictions 421
Beyond 2011 423
In Conclusion 424
References 425
Glossary 453
List of Tables and Figures 475
Name Index 487
Subject Index 493
About the Authors 501
Pfeiffer Publications Guide 503
Acknowledgments xvii
Introduction 1
1. e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls 7
What Is e-Learning? 8
Is e-Learning Better? 11
The Promise of e-Learning 14
The Pitfalls of e-Learning 19
Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals 20
e-Learning Architectures 22
What Is Effective e-Courseware? 23
Learning in e-Learning 25
2. How Do People Learn from e-Courses? 29
How Do People Learn? 31
How e-Lessons Affect Human Learning 39
What We Don't Know About Learning 44
3. Evidence-Based Practice 49
What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 50
Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness 51
What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons 55
How to Interpret No Effect in Experimental Comparisons 57
How to Interpret Research Statistics 58
How Can You Identify Relevant Research? 61
What We Don't Know About Evidence-Based Practice 62
4. Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather Than Words Alone 67
Do Visuals Make a Difference? 69
Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 70
Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 74
Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 78
Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 79
The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices 83
Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations? 84
What We Don't Know About Visuals 86
5. Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics 91
Contiguity Principle 1: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 93
Contiguity Principle 2: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics 102
Psychological Reasons for the Contiguity Principle 104
Evidence for Presenting Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 106
Evidence for Presenting Spoken Words at the Same Time as Corresponding Graphics 109
What We Don't Know About Contiguity 110
6. Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115
Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text 117
Limitations to the Modality Principle 119
Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle 121
Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text 123
When the Modality Principle Applies 128
What We Don't Know About Modality 129
7. Applying the Redundancy Principle: Explain Visuals with Words in Audio OR Text: Not Both 133
Redundancy Principle 1: Do Not Add On-Screen Text to Narrated Graphics 135
Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle 137
Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text 139
Redundancy Principle 2: Consider Adding On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations 141
Psychological Reasons for Exceptions to the Redundancy Principle 142
Evidence for Including Redundant On-Screen Text 144
What We Don't Know About Redundancy 146
8. Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Material Can Hurt Learning 151
Coherence Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio 153
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning 156
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio 157
Coherence Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics 159
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning 160
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest 161
Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals 164
Coherence Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words 166
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas 170
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth 172
What We Don't Know About Coherence 172
9. Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style and Virtual Coaches 179
Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style 182
Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle 183
Evidence for Using Conversational Style 185
Promote Personalization Through Voice Quality 188
Promote Personalization Through Polite Speech 189
Personalization Principle 2: Use Effective On-Screen Coaches to Promote Learning 191
Personalization Principle 3: Make the Author Visible to Promote Learning 197
Psychological Reasons for Using a Visible Author 200
Evidence for the Visible Author 200
What We Don't Know About Personalization 201
10. Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles: Managing Complexity by Breaking a Lesson into Parts 205
Segmenting Principle: Break a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 207
Psychological Reasons for the Segmenting Principle 210
Evidence for Breaking a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 211
Pretraining Principle: Ensure That Learners Know the Names and Characteristics of Key Concepts 212
Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle 214
Evidence for Providing Pretraining in Key Concepts 216
What We Don't Know About Segmenting and Pretraining 218
11. Leveraging Examples in e-Learning 223
What Are Worked Examples? 224
The Psychology of Worked Examples 227
Evidence for the Benefi ts of Worked Examples 227
Worked Example Principle 1: Fade from Worked Examples to Problems 229
Worked Example Principle 2: Promote Self-Explanations 231
Worked Example Principle 3: Include Instructional Explanations of Worked Examples in Some Situations 234
Worked Example Principle 4: Apply Multimedia Principles to Examples 235
Worked Example Principle 5: Support Learning Transfer 239
Design Guidelines for Far Transfer Worked Examples 240
What We Don't Know About Worked Examples 245
12. Does Practice Make Perfect? 251
What Is Practice in e-Learning? 253
The Paradox of Practice 255
Practice Principle 1: Add Suffi cient Practice Interactions to e-Learning to Achieve the Objective 257
Practice Principle 2: Mirror the Job 262
Practice Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback 263
Practice Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events 267
Practice Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles 272
Practice Principle 6: Transition from Examples to Practice Gradually 274
What We Don't Know About Practice 274
13. Learning Together Virtually 279
What Is Collaborative Learning? 280
What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? 284
Some Generalizations About Collaboration 288
CSCL Research Summaries 292
Structured Controversy 300
CSCL: The Bottom Line 303
What We Don't Know About CSCL 303
14. Who's in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 309
Learner Control Versus Program Control 311
Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 315
Learner Control Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control 319
Learner Control Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default 322
Learner Control Principle 3: Consider Adaptive Control 323
Learner Control Principle 4: Give Pacing Control 327
Learner Control Principle 5: Offer Navigational Support in Hypermedia Environments 329
What We Don't Know About Learner Control 333
15. e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills 339
Three Types of Thinking Skills 341
Can Thinking Skills Be Trained? 343
Thinking Skills Principle 1: Focus on Job-Specific Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills 344
Thinking Skills Principle 2: Consider a Whole-Task Course Design 345
Evidence for Whole-Task Instruction 351
Thinking Skills Principle 3: Make Thinking Processes Explicit 355
Thinking Skills Principle 4: Defi ne Job-Specifi c Thinking Processes 360
Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line 363
What We Don't Know About Teaching Thinking Skills 364
16. Simulations and Games in e-Learning 369
The Case for Simulations and Games 372
What Are Simulations and Games? 374
Do Games and Simulations Teach? 378
Games and Simulations Principle 1: Match Game Types to Learning Goals 381
Games and Simulations Principle 2: Make Learning Essential to Game Progress 382
Games and Simulations Principle 3: Build in Proven Instructional Strategies 382
Games and Simulations Principle 4: Build in Guidance and Structure 386
Games and Simulations Principle 5: Manage Complexity 389
Games and Simulations Principle 6: Make Relevance Salient 393
What We Don't Know About Games and Simulations 394
17. Applying the Guidelines 401
Applying Evidence-Based Guidelines to e-Courses 401
e-Lesson Reviews 404
Review of Sample 1: Asynchronous e-Lesson on Excel for Small Business 409
Review of Sample 2: Synchronous e-Lesson on Excel 414
Review of Sample 3: Automotive Troubleshooting Simulation 418
Reflections on Past Predictions 421
Beyond 2011 423
In Conclusion 424
References 425
Glossary 453
List of Tables and Figures 475
Name Index 487
Subject Index 493
About the Authors 501
Pfeiffer Publications Guide 503
Introduction 1
1. e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls 7
What Is e-Learning? 8
Is e-Learning Better? 11
The Promise of e-Learning 14
The Pitfalls of e-Learning 19
Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals 20
e-Learning Architectures 22
What Is Effective e-Courseware? 23
Learning in e-Learning 25
2. How Do People Learn from e-Courses? 29
How Do People Learn? 31
How e-Lessons Affect Human Learning 39
What We Don't Know About Learning 44
3. Evidence-Based Practice 49
What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 50
Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness 51
What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons 55
How to Interpret No Effect in Experimental Comparisons 57
How to Interpret Research Statistics 58
How Can You Identify Relevant Research? 61
What We Don't Know About Evidence-Based Practice 62
4. Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather Than Words Alone 67
Do Visuals Make a Difference? 69
Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 70
Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 74
Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 78
Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 79
The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices 83
Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations? 84
What We Don't Know About Visuals 86
5. Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics 91
Contiguity Principle 1: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 93
Contiguity Principle 2: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics 102
Psychological Reasons for the Contiguity Principle 104
Evidence for Presenting Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 106
Evidence for Presenting Spoken Words at the Same Time as Corresponding Graphics 109
What We Don't Know About Contiguity 110
6. Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115
Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text 117
Limitations to the Modality Principle 119
Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle 121
Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text 123
When the Modality Principle Applies 128
What We Don't Know About Modality 129
7. Applying the Redundancy Principle: Explain Visuals with Words in Audio OR Text: Not Both 133
Redundancy Principle 1: Do Not Add On-Screen Text to Narrated Graphics 135
Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle 137
Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text 139
Redundancy Principle 2: Consider Adding On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations 141
Psychological Reasons for Exceptions to the Redundancy Principle 142
Evidence for Including Redundant On-Screen Text 144
What We Don't Know About Redundancy 146
8. Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Material Can Hurt Learning 151
Coherence Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio 153
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning 156
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio 157
Coherence Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics 159
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning 160
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest 161
Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals 164
Coherence Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words 166
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas 170
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth 172
What We Don't Know About Coherence 172
9. Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style and Virtual Coaches 179
Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style 182
Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle 183
Evidence for Using Conversational Style 185
Promote Personalization Through Voice Quality 188
Promote Personalization Through Polite Speech 189
Personalization Principle 2: Use Effective On-Screen Coaches to Promote Learning 191
Personalization Principle 3: Make the Author Visible to Promote Learning 197
Psychological Reasons for Using a Visible Author 200
Evidence for the Visible Author 200
What We Don't Know About Personalization 201
10. Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles: Managing Complexity by Breaking a Lesson into Parts 205
Segmenting Principle: Break a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 207
Psychological Reasons for the Segmenting Principle 210
Evidence for Breaking a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments 211
Pretraining Principle: Ensure That Learners Know the Names and Characteristics of Key Concepts 212
Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle 214
Evidence for Providing Pretraining in Key Concepts 216
What We Don't Know About Segmenting and Pretraining 218
11. Leveraging Examples in e-Learning 223
What Are Worked Examples? 224
The Psychology of Worked Examples 227
Evidence for the Benefi ts of Worked Examples 227
Worked Example Principle 1: Fade from Worked Examples to Problems 229
Worked Example Principle 2: Promote Self-Explanations 231
Worked Example Principle 3: Include Instructional Explanations of Worked Examples in Some Situations 234
Worked Example Principle 4: Apply Multimedia Principles to Examples 235
Worked Example Principle 5: Support Learning Transfer 239
Design Guidelines for Far Transfer Worked Examples 240
What We Don't Know About Worked Examples 245
12. Does Practice Make Perfect? 251
What Is Practice in e-Learning? 253
The Paradox of Practice 255
Practice Principle 1: Add Suffi cient Practice Interactions to e-Learning to Achieve the Objective 257
Practice Principle 2: Mirror the Job 262
Practice Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback 263
Practice Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events 267
Practice Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles 272
Practice Principle 6: Transition from Examples to Practice Gradually 274
What We Don't Know About Practice 274
13. Learning Together Virtually 279
What Is Collaborative Learning? 280
What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? 284
Some Generalizations About Collaboration 288
CSCL Research Summaries 292
Structured Controversy 300
CSCL: The Bottom Line 303
What We Don't Know About CSCL 303
14. Who's in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 309
Learner Control Versus Program Control 311
Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 315
Learner Control Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control 319
Learner Control Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default 322
Learner Control Principle 3: Consider Adaptive Control 323
Learner Control Principle 4: Give Pacing Control 327
Learner Control Principle 5: Offer Navigational Support in Hypermedia Environments 329
What We Don't Know About Learner Control 333
15. e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills 339
Three Types of Thinking Skills 341
Can Thinking Skills Be Trained? 343
Thinking Skills Principle 1: Focus on Job-Specific Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills 344
Thinking Skills Principle 2: Consider a Whole-Task Course Design 345
Evidence for Whole-Task Instruction 351
Thinking Skills Principle 3: Make Thinking Processes Explicit 355
Thinking Skills Principle 4: Defi ne Job-Specifi c Thinking Processes 360
Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line 363
What We Don't Know About Teaching Thinking Skills 364
16. Simulations and Games in e-Learning 369
The Case for Simulations and Games 372
What Are Simulations and Games? 374
Do Games and Simulations Teach? 378
Games and Simulations Principle 1: Match Game Types to Learning Goals 381
Games and Simulations Principle 2: Make Learning Essential to Game Progress 382
Games and Simulations Principle 3: Build in Proven Instructional Strategies 382
Games and Simulations Principle 4: Build in Guidance and Structure 386
Games and Simulations Principle 5: Manage Complexity 389
Games and Simulations Principle 6: Make Relevance Salient 393
What We Don't Know About Games and Simulations 394
17. Applying the Guidelines 401
Applying Evidence-Based Guidelines to e-Courses 401
e-Lesson Reviews 404
Review of Sample 1: Asynchronous e-Lesson on Excel for Small Business 409
Review of Sample 2: Synchronous e-Lesson on Excel 414
Review of Sample 3: Automotive Troubleshooting Simulation 418
Reflections on Past Predictions 421
Beyond 2011 423
In Conclusion 424
References 425
Glossary 453
List of Tables and Figures 475
Name Index 487
Subject Index 493
About the Authors 501
Pfeiffer Publications Guide 503